Farid Ghamsari
Dr. Stephanie Brown
English 306
11/2/2016
The Significance of
the Black Abolitionist Identity
in the American Abolitionist Movement
The Abolitionist Movement in the
United States is a movement that many are familiar with. It called for the
complete and immediate abolishment of slavery in the United States. It was an
intense and significant movement which grew larger and larger until it became
one of the major factors leading up to the civil war, after which, the movement
ended, having achieved its goal of abolishing slavery throughout the United
States. While the general history of the Abolitionist movement is relatively
common knowledge, the path through which the identities that made up the
movement is much less known. For most of the history of the United States,
historians have publicized the idea that the Abolitionist Movement was most
intensely fought by Whites, creating the idea of “The White Liberators”.
However, in recent decades, historians have gone back to the events of the
movement and have focused on the immensely significant role that Blacks had in
their own liberation. These recent publications will show that The Abolitionist
Movement was a large culmination of several independent groups with differing
identities and ideals that led them to fight for the movement. This essay will
primarily focus on the two largest and most consequential groups in the
movement, the White Immediatists and the Black Abolitionists. First, the essay will present a comprehensive
background of the relevant historical information necessary to understand how
slavery and the Abolitionist movement both began and developed in the United
States. Here it will also go into detail about one Black Abolitionist leader in
particular who helped champion the Black Abolitionist identity through his life
and work. Next, it will elaborate on the two aforementioned identities and how
each developed and the role that each played in the Abolitionist Movement,
focusing on the significance of the Black Abolitionists in changing the rhetoric
of the Movement, and in doing so, making it stronger. Finally, the essay will
discuss and analyze an artifact from the movement which exemplifies the
significance of the Black Abolitionists and portrays the how the new Black
Abolitionist Identity introduced stronger and more impactful rhetoric to the
movement.
Before the Abolitionist
movement, the practice of slavery was relatively ubiquitous throughout the United
States. Especially in the South, there was a significant need for cheap labor
and slavery quickly became a relatively prevalent practice. Before the US
became an independent nation, there were only relatively small groups, such as
the Quakers, that did not practice slavery, believing that it was immoral and a
violation of human brotherhood (Ferrell 7). Over time, these small groups
eventually moved from simply not practicing slavery themselves, to open opposition
of it, pushing for it to stop all throughout the United States. The American Abolitionist
Movement was defined as the movement to immediately and completely Abolish
Slavery throughout the United States.
The movement
really began in 1776, just before the United States gained its independence. Up until
this time, most if not all states, were fairly accepting of the practice of
slavery, but groups which found it morally irreprehensible were constantly
growing larger and more adamant about the opposition to it. These groups,
mostly present in the North of the US, grew more powerful during this time and slavery
slowly lost favor. Over the next 50-60 years, the northern states slowly began
introducing legislature which first banned slave trade, and then slavery
altogether. By the 1820’s most northern states had all but abolished slavery in
the north. (Ferrell 28).
Slavery in
the South was a much more engrained practice however. In the North, slavery had
been becoming a practice of convenience over time, but in the South, slavery
was needed to work plantations. By using slavery, plantation owners could make
significantly more money due to not needing to pay wages for the work. The drive
for increased production, profit, and wealth was exceedingly powerful and for
the most part trumped morality in the South. In addition, the disjointed nature
of the south, which would have great stretches of land between plantations, also
hindered the spreading of ideas. The South strongly resisted the abolitionist
movement for these reasons and actively fought it on a number of occasions with
laws such as the Fugitive Slave Law. In 1793, the law was passed which forced northern
states to return runaway slaves to the south. (Ferrell 27). For Southern Slave
Owners, an end to slavery would essentially be an end to their entire way of
life, completely derailing their livelihoods. For this reason, it is easy to
see why Southerners would want to resist the ideals of the Abolitionist
Movement as strongly as they did.
However,
even after slavery was condemned in the North, free Blacks were actually not
significantly better off than the slaves who lived in the south. During this
time, in the North, there was still severe discrimination and racism that
existed towards free Blacks (Litwack). Blacks in the North had to fight very
similar battles to those fought in the south. In the 1820’s, The Abolitionist Movement
in the North gradually became a mission for civil rights for all free men living
in the United States in addition to its goals to abolish slavery. It is important
to note that this mostly applied to black men and not women, who still did not
obtain equal civil rights until much later in the US’s history. The
Abolitionist movement and its goals was significantly assisted by new several
abolitionist newspapers such as The
Liberator, started and written by William Lloyd Garrison, an important
white leader in the Abolitionist Movement (Shortell).
By the
1830’s, The Liberator, along with
several other newspapers, launched a renewed Abolitionist campaign in the
North, focused on complete racial equality, and began launching a more focused
campaign to end slavery in the south. (Stewart). The South strongly resisted
these campaigns, unwilling to give up their slaves for any reason that couldn’t
trump their financial successes. These newspapers along with Black leaders led
to a high point of turmoil in the North during the 1830’s and 40’s. During this
period, even Northern Whites who had freed their slaves were worried about a
resulting race war if the Abolitionist Rhetoric continued in the way that it
was. This period of time is known as the Antebellum Period of the Abolitionist
movement and is considered the most radical period of the movement, pushing for
complete racial equality and “respectability” for African Americans. This
Antebellum period can be considered at the crisis of the Abolitionist Movement
under Griffin’s framework for describing political protests. (Griffin)
White newspapers had a large and
significant impact on the movement, helping it expand and grow beyond what its
capabilities would be without them. However, Black Abolitionists also had a significant
impact throughout the movement, eventually culminating in the Black
Abolitionist Identity during the Antebellum period. Since the beginning of the
Abolitionist Movement in the US, Blacks were actively fighting slavery in a way
which pushed it to its limits before it was completely abolished in each area.
Examples of this have been seen in many ways throughout the different areas of
the US. In Massachusetts, back in 1776, Black slaves were able to run from
their owners, and once they had escaped, they would be considered free by
Massachusetts law. At this point, they would then return and lawfully
emancipate the rest of the slaves who were still residing with the owner
(Sinha). In Vermont, Black Abolitionists were able to constitutionally
institute universal male suffrage. From there they were able to vote on the
issue of slavery, and with the large number of Black voters, were able to condemn
it (Sinha). Black leaders had lasting impacts on the initial abolition of
slavery in the North, but soon after slavery was abolished in these areas, the Black
Abolitionists lost steam after having been freed and moved into the background
of the Abolitionist Movement. It was only in the 1830’s and 40’s when free black
men became a strong source of leadership. This was due to many prior slaves becoming
strong writers and orators who spread abolitionism to other African Americans
in a way that no white Abolitionist could have. They helped make abolition an
African American cause and movement which forcefully thrust the movement
forward. Black leaders such as Henry Garnet, Henry Bibb, and Fredrick Douglass
championed the Black Abolitionist cause and spread the ideals with a new found
zeal and strength. (Harold 118).
Fredrick
Douglass was an African American who had been born a slave in Maryland. For
many years, he was beaten daily by his owners until he was hired to another
slave owner who treated him slightly better. (Ferrell 122). Douglass escaped
slavery in 1838 and moved to the North. There, he began reading The Liberator and was greatly inspired
by William Lloyd Garrison. Soon after, Douglass wrote his autobiography
“Narrative of the Life of Fredrick Douglass” which contained a slave narrative
that became wildly popular as an insight into the life of a slave. Douglass
gained much acclaim and became a dominant figure in the Abolitionist Movement.
He was such a strong orator and writer that many found it hard to believe that
he had ever been a slave. During his life, he wrote several more influential
works such as “My Bondage and My Freedom” (Chaney 17), and gave numerous
influential speeches. He is remembered for establishing different themes
throughout his writing to depict different ideas such as Black-Heroism and the
equality of men by being men. One of the most influential speeches he gave was
of the Creole slave ship revolt, in
which a black leader, Madison Washington, led 19 slaves in a successful revolt
against their captives while killing only one crew member. They redirected the
ship to Britain where the all of the 135 slaves aboard were declared free
(Bernier). His speeches and writings personalized the atrocities of slavery and
brought them onto a public scale. The works allowed White people to see how
evil slavery could be, and they let slaves see how they could begin to champion
their own freedom as Douglass and those he spoke of had done (Davis). Other Southern Black Liberators began writing
and an increasing force grew from their collective identity as more slaves
began to understand their own power to revolt and free themselves. (Davis)
Fredrick
Douglass entered the protest at a very critical point. His rhetoric changed the
conversation and role of Abolitionism. It shifted from being a predominantly
white-led movement, as shown by William Lloyd Garrison and The Liberator, to one primarily led by free Black leaders. He also
helped in creating a following and support for the movement in both free and
enslaved blacks, which pushed the movement to a breaking point. The following
section of this essay will explore in more depth, the rhetoric and individual
identities involved in the movement as it rhetorically shifted from White
Abolitionism to Black Abolitionism in the movement. It will also further explore
how Frederick Douglass acted as a key figure in this shift as an embodiment of
the Black Abolitionist Identity.
From
its beginnings, the Abolitionist Movement was primarily led by people known as White
Immediatists. The Immediatists were present since the beginnings of slavery in the US
and saw their beginnings in small groups such as The Quakers. The Immediatists
were those who believed that slavery should be condemned because they saw it as
a heinous crime to God and American Ideals (Stewart 6). These Immediatists saw
emancipation as the only way to rid America of the injustices of the slavery
and reconcile the US with God, and they called for the immediate and complete
abolishment of slavery all over the US. (Stewart 7). This identity while being
strong and influential, was a fairly small one. The percentage of the
population in the North that consisted of these religiously moral Immediatists
was relatively minimal, despite the speed with which their messages spread in
the North. William Lloyd Garrison was initially an Immediatist and with the use
of his newspaper The Liberator he was
able to spread this message quickly and broadly. The Immediatists identity saw
its strongest era in the early 1830’s. At this point in time, many others
joined the Immediatists under the idea that slavery was morally irreprehensible.
These newcomers were less interested in its immorality in the face of God, but
instead simply felt that the practice was immoral and should be abolished on
that ground alone (Stewart 7).
As
mentioned previously, the south resisted the ideals of the Immediatists
strongly. The south was deeply racist and saw slaves as property rather than
human individuals. This helped them ignore the ideals of the Immediatists as
unjustified and pointless. There were few Southern Abolitionists prior to the
1830’s and these people were often attacked or harassed by pro-slavery
extremists (Harrold 18). For this reason in addition to those expressed earlier
in the paper, the spreading of information and Abolitionist ideals was slow to
spread in the south. To southerners, the economy held by slavery was
significantly more important and valuable than the values that white
Immediatists seemed to be preaching. The south considered Northern Immediatists
to be fanatical and unrealistic, asking Southern Slave owners to simply give up
their largest and most valuable investments (Harrold 15). These Immediatists,
while spreading a relatively moral message, were often zealous in their method
of doing so. Many Immediatists were followers of “William Lloyd Garrison’s
radical brand of abolitionism, [and] became infamous for breaking up services
in churches [and other venues] that barred antislavery meetings,” (Olson). Though it seems that the Immediatists had good
intentions, their methods through which they tried to achieve emancipation were
overly radical and disrespectful. This is one issue that kept Southern leaders
from wanting to even think about emancipating their slaves. The southerners
were outraged by the ways Immediatists tried to push their agenda and in many
ways dug themselves in deeper into their Pro-slavery ideals due to the Immediatists.
(Stewart 12).
The
Immediatists radicalism and zealotry caused them to fail in many regards in
their protest. Their methods failed to develop a strong identity in the North and
were immensely counterproductive in the south. This failure of the White
Immediatists to can be accurately described through an article written by James
Jasper. In Jasper’s article “The Emotions of Protest: Affective and Reactive
Emotions in and around Social Movements”, he articulates the necessity of
properly cultivating emotions in a protest, especially one that requires a
basis around morality. (Jasper). He articulates that it is important for a
protest to develop a proper frame for its participants to align with. By this,
a frame is meant to represent a mindset or collective of ideas behind which
members of a particular protest can feel a part of, and essentially align to
its frame. For this protest, it was important for the Immediatists of the North
to create an Injustice Frame around slavery in the south. An injustice frame be
considered a “way of viewing a situation or condition that expresses
indignation or outrage over a perceived injustice”. (Jasper). The act of
slavery, while clearly amoral, was not being represented by the Immediatists in
a strong enough Injustice Frame for great amounts of society to be outraged and
align with the cause. This failure clearly depicts why the White Immediatist
Identity had so much opposition and resistance.
In
the early 1840’s however, a new Abolitionist Identity began to arise. This
abolitionist identity was that of the Southern Black Abolitionist (Stewart 21).
This identity was championed by African American leaders such as Fredrick
Douglass, who had previously been slaves, before they went on to be strong
African American Abolitionists (Stewart 21). The Black Abolitionist Identity
was built by these leaders and slowly grew into the south, attaching the identity
to all Black Slaves, who craved their freedom.
This new
identity created a pivotal role in the Abolitionist Movement. The Black
Abolitionists, rather than calling for the abolishment of slavery, simply due
to its immorality, called for equal rights, through the definition of manhood.
This expressed the idea that Black men, were clearly men, and experienced
manhood in the same way as white men, questioning how the color of a man’s skin
could dictate anything. Black Abolitionists were not only fighting slavery, but
calling for equal rights in northern society which was still very strongly
racist (Shortell). It was at this time that the White Immediatist Newspapers
such as The Liberator also began
pushing messages of civil rights and total racial equality. The Black
Abolitionist identity restructured the rhetoric through which slavery should be
addressed, as well as the way in which free African Americans should be
treated. This identity was much stronger than the previous Immediatists in that
it connected with black individuals in the south who were still enslaved. Many
previously enslaved Black writers became leaders of this movement and identity
by expressing the plight of the slave through narratives and memoirs as seen in
Davis’ book, The Slave Narrative. These narratives and others like them
gave insight into the life of the slave and clearly portrayed the injustice’s
taking place in the south. One story in the collective tells of how David
George, was “’whipped many a time on [his] naked skin’ after seeing his family
cruelly abused” (Davis 51). Stories like this personalized the pain and
suffering being caused by slavery and made this available not only free white
and black people in the North, but also any literate slaves in the South. When
Black slaves were able to see one another rise up against the injustices, it
made them feel stronger about their own independent identities and more
rebellious towards their captors.
The new
Black identity, while developing this sense of strength among Black
individuals, also created a new rhetoric through which to address the racism
that persisted in the North (Bernier). Fredrick Douglass, one of the strongest
orators and writers of the Black Abolitionists, can be considered a model and
embodiment of the identity, and created many of its defining moments and its
rhetoric. In one speech, Douglass argued, “I am here but to urge the right of
every man to his own body, to his own hand, and to his own heart” (Bernier). In
this, he is arguing that simply by the humanity and manhood of black men, they
should have their lives in their own hands, as do all other men. With this, he
elicits emotions of rebellion and revolt from Southern slaves, while also
softening the hearts of white racists in the North who have tried to dehumanize
Black men.
The Black
Abolitionist Identity was much more successful in the attacks against slavery
than the previous Immediatist Abolitionism. This, in large part, is due to the
effect that it had on Southern Slaves. Slaves felt encouraged to run away from
their owners, in hope of securing their freedom as their African American
Leaders had (Litwack). In many ways, this weakened the South’s hold over their
slaves more than any other attempt from the North previously had. The increasing
numbers of runaway slaves led to severely heightened tensions between the North
and the South, ultimately becoming one of the main factors that led to the
Civil War (Litwack).
Once again
looking at Jaspers’ discussion of emotions in protests again make it clear as
to why this Identity so much more successful in the progression of the
movement. Jasper argues several key points to the success of a protest, one
being the proper framing of injustice. The new Black Abolitionist Identity, no
longer simply framed slavery as amoral and a sin to God, but instead defined it
as an injustice to the men who were enslaved. Through the rhetoric of
collective manhood for both Blacks and Whites, a collective identity of man was
able to be created. With this identity, it became clear that the immoral
injustice of slavery was not just a problem for Black men, but also White men
too, who were connected in their collective manhood. This rhetoric framed the
injustice of slavery in a way in which Black and White men could easily align
themselves and feel wholly part of the collective identity. This connection that was growing between them
was easily quantified by the amount of slaves that were able to escape and were
hosted by Black and White Northerners (Lamb). Southern slave owners were mostly
outraged by the rhetoric and actions of the Black and White Northerners who
refused to return the runaway slaves, saying that they were, “’stealing’ under
federal law” (Lamb). With this, the Black Abolitionist Identity not only
connected all those who wanted the abolishment of slavery under a single
emotional frame and collective identity, but it also alienated and enraged the
Southern Slave holders. The next portion of this essay will focus on one
artifact, The Narrative of the Life of Fredrick Douglass which embodied the
Black Abolitionist Identity, and discuss how it, like many other slave
narratives, was so effective in cultivating the Black Abolitionist Identity.
The Narrative of the Life of
Fredrick Douglass was an Autobiography in which he personalized the issues
of slavery for many who had been disconnected from it by discussing his own
painful history as a slave. He and other Black Abolitionists, correctly
understood how to frame his works to elicit strong emotions from his readers
and give them an intimate view of slavery and its atrocities. The book employs
pathos, ethos, and logos to solidify the Black Abolitionist Identity and use
them to bring all of those who opposed slavery to one solid force against it.
The Narrative
of Fredrick Douglass primarily uses pathos to personalize the atrocities of
slavery for anyone reading the book by portraying Douglass’ own plight through
the process of slavery before finally escaping to his freedom. The book tells
countless stories of being estranged and beaten. He says while working for his owner, Mr.
Covey, “[Mr. Covey] lashed [Douglass] till he had worn out his stitches,
cutting him so savagely as to leave the marks visible for a long time after
(Douglass 52). The extent to which the brutality and painful atrocities of
slavery are expressed through this novel are somewhat troubling. It elicits
pain and disgust at how the practices of slavery could honestly be continuing
in such a manner. In another story, Douglass describes his suffering at his
breaking point: “Mr. Covey succeeded in breaking me. I was broken in body,
soul, and spirit. My natural elasticity was crushed, my intellect languished,
the disposition to read departed, the cheerful spark that lingered about my eye
died; the dark night of slavery closed in upon me; and behold a man transformed
into a brute!” (Douglass 55). The personal and intimate description of
Douglass’ soul and spirit being crushed draws an intense empathy from the
reader, feeling truly sorry for Douglass. These among countless other stories
of brutality and suffering under the chains of slavery are bulk of The
Narrative. The physical pain and
distress brought to the slaves was portrayed and publicized through this book
in a manner which could elicit strong emotions from any reader. From Northern
Abolitionists, it drew sympathy for the slaves and moral disgust at the
practices that continued in the South. From freed and enslaved blacks, it drew
empathy for one another’s suffering, but it also created a sort of empowerment.
Seeing Fredrick Douglass, who himself escaped slavery, empowered Blacks to believe
that they could too, and they began to fill this Black Abolitionist Identity,
fighting for their own freedom. This form of Black empowerment through The
Narrative of Fredrick Douglass was able to provide one of the key factors
that led to the escalation of the issue up to the civil war (Sinha). As stated
before this rhetoric and powerful emotional appeal was crucial in the
development of the complete Abolitionist Movement. The autobiography and other
narratives like it, many examples of which can be found in Charles Davis’ book The
Slave Narrative, were able to portray slavery and Southern slave owners in
a rhetorical frame of severe injustice. The amorality of this injustice painted
Southern slave owners as a clear target as all of the different Anti-Slavery
groups and peoples were able to align their own personal frames behind the one
presented by the slave narrative. The Narrative of the Life of Frederick
Douglass in particular was one of the first and most prolific slave
narratives, bringing together the different Abolitionist groups by eliciting a
strong set of emotions in its readers and bringing about a larger Black
Abolitionist Identity through its message.
The book, while
being powerfully emotional and striking chords throughout the many sects of the
Abolitionist Movement, also held a strong amount of ethos in its content that
previous Abolitionist writings were missing. Fredrick Douglass, by having been
a former slave, created a new authority with his autobiography. Up until that
point, any writings that had been distributed by the White Immediatists could
not have held nearly the form of weight that the book did or any other slave
narratives. When the White Immediatists spoke and wrote of the problem, it was
a far removed description of the atrocities that slavery produced and was. Due
to this distance, their writings had no strong impact on anyone who was not
actively an Abolitionist or part of the Immediatist cause (Mailloux 85). Their
calls of the amorality of slavery were generic and could not have held the
authority that The Narrative did, having been written by a former slave
who had truly experienced these atrocities. The fact that The Narrative of
the Life of Frederick Douglass was a book about experiencing slavery from
someone who truly had, brought an authority in its writings that no White
Immediatist literature could have. The way the autobiography was viewed was
fundamentally different due to this distinction. It contained the gritty real
truth with experience which spoke its readers in a way that all previous
writing had been missing. This experience of having been a slave helped
Frederick Douglass and his autobiography sway his audience with significant
ethos (Mailloux 85). The authority The Narrative held made its readers
take the atrocities seen in the book as truth and fact and to feel the need to
take arms against it. This exposure led to a growing Black Abolitionist
Identity as more individuals felt that they had learned just how amoral slavery
was. However, Douglass also gains an additional authority through being such an
eloquent speaker and writer. As a former slave, to be literate at all was
uncommon. His ability to write and speak so powerfully additionally gave him a
fair amount of ethos as well, portraying him as a strong and respectable
leader.
Finally, The
Narrative of Frederick Douglass also used Logos to build the Black
Abolitionist Identity in a slightly subtler way. When Douglass’ autobiography
became published and publicized, a revelation spread across the minds of the slaves
residing in the south. They were reading the narrative of a former slave, who
had taken charge of his life and escaped and had become well regarded and
strong. The story of the narrative logically led Blacks still enslaved in the
South to begin fighting more intensely for their own freedom (Chukwu). After Frederick Douglass’ Narrative spread,
more Slave Narrative’s began spreading as well, further increasing slaves’
resistance against their masters. This is where the final piece of the Black
Abolitionist Identity is created. After seeing The Narrative as well as
other narratives of slaves escaping and truly being free in the north, the
slaves of the south were able to join the Black Abolitionist Identity and began
advocating more seriously for their own freedom. The Narrative of the Life
of Frederick Douglass spread the message that if Frederick Douglass could
do it, so could anyone else bound by slavery (Aptheker). This appeal to logos
fundamentally changed the way slaves viewed themselves under slavery and
launched them into feeling united under the Black Abolitionist Identity
(Aptheker).
Through appeals to
emotion, authority, and logic, The Narrative of the Life of Frederick
Douglass among other slave narratives, brought together a new identity of Black
Abolitionists to further propel the Abolitionist movement towards its goals.
This new Identity was united in their new intimate view of the atrocities of
slavery and its amorality. This identity was also headed by a new set of Black
Abolitionist leaders such as Frederick Douglass who held an authority on the
suffering caused by slavery having once been slaves themselves. These
narratives also pushed southern enslaved Blacks into the new Abolitionist
Movement by showing them the potential to escape slavery and to join with the
spirited and ever growing Black Abolitionist Identity.
The Narrative
of the Life of Frederick Douglass is just one of many examples of writings
that helped bolster the Black Abolitionist Identity. These writings were able
to personalize and portray slavery in a way that the previous White Immediatist
Identity was wholly unable. The Black Abolitionist Identity was one that was
able to reach many more groups of people by displaying slavery as injustice to
the enslaved and strengthened the movement by changing its rhetoric from being
about an immorality in the face of God. The Black Abolitionist Identity, with
these changes, was significantly stronger than the previous white Immediatist identity
and shows how important a sense of identity is in throughout the course of a movement.
The White Immediatist Identity, through its zealous methods, turned many people
away from its ideals, however moral they may have been. The Black Abolitionist
Identity, essentially pushing for the same final goal, did so with a rhetoric
that was able to many more people feel attached to the identity, and therefore
the goal.
While the
Abolitionist movement was unable to actually achieve its goals diplomatically,
it was able to lead to significant tension in the United States resulting in
the Civil War. Additionally, the effect of the Black Abolitionist Identity in
creating a larger push for the abolishment of slavery was crucial in raising
tension to that point.
Works Cited:
Aptheker,
Herbert. The Negro in the
Abolitionist Movement. 1st ed. Vol. 5. New York: International, 1941.
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Bernier,
Celeste-Marie. "From Fugitive Slave To Fugitive Abolitionist." Atlantic Studies 3.2 (2006):
201-24. Web.
Chaney,
Michael A. Fugitive Vision: Slave
Image and Black Identity in Antebellum Narrative. Bloomington: Indiana UP,
2008. Print.
Chukwu,
Dan O. "Background to the Era of New Abolitionism." Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 17
(2007): 1-15. Web.
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Charles T., and Henry Louis Gates. The
Slave's Narrative. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1985. Print.
Ferrell,
Claudine L. The Abolitionist
Movement. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2006. Print.
Harrold,
Stanley. The Abolitionists and the
South: 1831-1861. Lexington, KY: U of Kentucky, 1995. Print.
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James M. "The Emotions of Protest: Affective and Reactive Emotions In and
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Lamb,
Benjamin. Angry Abolitionists and
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Sociology.
Litwack,
Leon F. "The Abolitionist Dilemma: The Antislavery Movement and the
Northern Negro." The New
England Quarterly 34.1 (1961): 50-73. Web.
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Joel. "The Freshness of Fanaticism: The Abolitionist Defense of
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T. "The Rhetoric of Black Abolitionism: An Exploratory Analysis of
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Sinha,
Manisha. The Slave's Cause: A
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